Geological activity, such as mountain building and volcanism, is ultimately the consequence of the convective mass transport in the Earth’s interior. Indeed, the grand unifying theory in geophysics and Earth science—plate tectonics—fundamentally depends on the still poorly understood mechanisms that permit the Earth’s interior to flow beneath tectonic plates. Deciphering the three-dimensional structure and time dependence of this flow provides a framework for unraveling the complex, nonlinear interplay of processes that shaped the long-term evolution of Earth. The purpose of CIDER 2016 is to bring together junior and senior scientists from different disciplines to cross-educate each other and help advance this inherently multi-disciplinary question.